February 2018 – The Montessorian

The Absorbent Mind

Posted on 28/02/201817/11/2022 by Beth

The term absorbent mind is one that is often mentioned in relation to Maria Montessori. This post gives you a quick idea of the context to the term.

Stephenson (1991) declared that each child has the capacity to think, act and live as a human being, with the absorbent mind utilising the characteristics of humanity and the relevant plane of development (Montessori’s planes of development will be explained further in next week’s post) to mould that potential into reality through action. This is first done without consciousness, where the child needs assistance in interpreting the environment and creating knowledge (M. Montessori, 2012; Stephenson, 1991). In the next sub-plane, conscious intelligence in the absorbent mind begins as choices are made, still directed by the psychological features of the first plane of development (M. Montessori, 2012; Stephenson, 1991). The unconscious absorbent mind categorises and differentiates everything within its environment, focusing on what is relevant in the development of its individual personality (Stephenson, 1991). The conscious absorbent mind builds on the experiences of the first sub-plane, applying the “actualised potentials” of that time (Stephenson, 1991, p. 17).

Montessori (2012) described the discovery of the absorbent mind as a ‘revolution’ in education. She said that understanding this phenomenon enabled educators to understand why the first plane of development is the most important: “the creation of human character takes place within this span” (M. Montessori, 2012, p. 24). It created a new path for education in how to assist the developing mind in its progression.

Reference List

Montessori, M. (2012). The Absorbent Mind. California: BN Publishing.

Stephenson, M. E. (1991). The first plane of development. AMI Communications, 14–22.

Planes of Development

Posted on 21/02/201817/11/2022 by Beth

Montessori’s planes of development came from her medical observations where she identified four clear stages of human development from conception to maturity (Grazzini, 1979; Haines, Baker, & Kahn, 2000; M. Montessori, 2012; Stephenson, 1991). Each plane spans six years with developmental similarities identifiable between the first and third planes, and the second and fourth planes (Grazzini, 1979; Haines et al., 2000; M. Montessori, 2012; Stephenson, 1991). The four planes were then subdivided into sub-planes of three-year periods (M. Montessori, 2012). She described the first and second planes as the childhood stage (‘infancy’ then ‘childhood’), and the third and fourth planes as the adulthood stage (‘adolescence’ then ‘maturity’) (Grazzini, 1979; Haines et al., 2000; Stephenson, 1991). Grazzini (1979) noted that although each plane and its characteristics are unique, each plane also prepares for the following one, creating an “arc of human development” (p. 30). Montessori wanted these planes of development to be viewed not as a teaching curriculum but as supports to life, as something that assists the child “… to help it help itself become itself” (Stephenson, 1991, p. 15). Montessori explored the characteristics used by humans to cultivate themselves, identifying significant tendencies from the various planes.

The first plane (infancy) – zero to six years of age

The human in this plane is constructing its individual self, requiring assistance from others (usually adults) to create itself (M. Montessori, 2012; Stephenson, 1991). Montessori used the phrase absorbent mind to describe the intellect of a small child, where the mind moves from unconscious ‘absorbency’ in the first sub-plane (0-3 years of age) to conscious in the second (3-6 years of age) (M. Montessori, 2012; Stephenson, 1991). Section 4 discusses the absorbent mind further. The first plane is where the child absorbs and processes its environment, then explores and orders it—where intelligence is formed (Haines et al., 2000; M. Montessori, 2012). It is where the foundations for the child’s personality are laid and constructed for the following years of life and learning through experiences and social relationships (Haines et al., 2000; M. Montessori, 2012; Stephenson, 1991).

The first steps toward social development are taken during this time, with the first ‘social environment’ encountered being the maternal care of the mother (Haines et al., 2000). This encounter is vital both for the physical and social development of the child (Haines et al., 2000). The young child becomes like a sponge, absorbing behaviours, culture, and language through interactions with the parents and the family (Haines et al., 2000). Once the child reaches the age of 3 years, wider social interactions are required for further learning—that of their peers (Haines et al., 2000). Through these interactions with peers and the formal education environment, the child develops vital intellectual, social, moral, and physical skills (Haines et al., 2000). Montessori recognised the importance of having mixed ages in her classes because it “… fosters self-discipline, independence, and responsibility …” (Haines et al., 2000, p. 4) where the younger children learn from the older children, and the older children develop greater levels of responsibility and leadership.

The second plane (childhood) – six to twelve years of age

Grazzini (1979) described four facets of the psychological development of a child in this plane: 1) intellectual; 2) moral; 3) social; and 4) emotional. These areas were also explored by Haines, Baker, and Kahn (2000). These facets work together in the development of the whole child (Haines et al., 2000) but Grazzini (1979) noted that it can be useful to discuss them separately to comprehend them better.

Intellectual

During the second plane, Montessori recognised two sensitive periods with regard to intellectual characteristics: imagination and culture (Grazzini, 1979). Furthermore, the child has a fascination in and propensity for the abstract, interested in the how and the why of the world, and developing an understanding of cause and effect (Grazzini, 1979; Haines et al., 2000). Grazzini (1979) refers to ‘creative imagination’ where the child’s mind creates new connections from reality, resulting in new patterns and ideas. They wish to understand things for themselves instead of accepting facts at face value (Haines et al., 2000). This creative imagination manifests in a child’s curiosity about the world and in the tiny details to be found within it (Grazzini, 1979). Montessori stated that imaginative vision has no limits so it is therefore vastly dissimilar to the perception of something concrete (Grazzini, 1979). Whilst a ‘concrete approach’ was utilised in the first plane, in the second plane the child uses a concrete approach to abstract concepts (Haines et al., 2000).

The second intellectual sensitive period of this plane was that of culture. Montessori (2012) described imagination and culture as being intrinsically linked, because “… culture is not made up of the knowledge of things seen” (p.155). We need our imagination to fully understand and appreciate culture. She gave the example of Geography, where the person must imagine snow if they have never been to a place that has it (Montessori, 2012). It is during the second plane that enthusiasm and interest in science and culture blossoms (Grazzini, 1979; M. Montessori, 2012). The child in the second plane has moved on from absorbing the immediate environment, and is now wanting to understand the wider world and how it affects life, building on the knowledge developed in the first plane (Grazzini, 1979; Haines et al., 2000; M. Montessori, 2012). The child begins to understand the interconnectedness of living things, “… the ‘cosmic task’ of each element and of each force in the cosmos, including our human society” (Grazzini, 1979, p. 35).

Montessori believed that culture cannot be obtained from another, but from individual work and improved understanding of the self (Haines et al., 2000; M. Montessori, 2012). It is here that Montessori’s cosmic education comes into play. Mario Montessori (1976) believed that she developed cosmic education through her use of her imaginative vision to connect the past and present. Montessori’s concept of cosmic education explores humanity’s relationship to the universe (M. M. J. Montessori, 1976). Montessori had a profound admiration for creation and believed that humanity’s collective task was to understand the infinite possibilities of creation and to make them apparent in innovative ways (M. M. J. Montessori, 1976). This philosophy influenced her cultural curriculum, where her love and fascination with the sciences and her endless respect for and curiosity about creation is evident.

Moral

Montessori observed that children in the second plane are captivated by ethical life questions (Grazzini, 1979; Haines et al., 2000). It is during this time that the child questions and evaluates actions, with this sensitivity for morality informing their development of social relationships (Grazzini, 1979; Haines et al., 2000). Furthermore, Montessori identified that the child’s understanding of justice and the connection between a person’s acts and the needs of others are developed here (Grazzini, 1979; Haines et al., 2000). The child of six to twelve years cultivates their inner moral compass, which, when fixed, clearly displays their moral characteristics (Grazzini, 1979; Haines et al., 2000). Grazzini (1979) compares these moral characteristics to humanity’s virtues of justice, fortitude, and charity.

Social

Mario Montessori (1976) observed that children in the second plane have an increasing fascination in their peers’ behaviours, and have a greater desire to join others in groups. They view adults differently, idealizing ‘heroes’ and role models, with a new outlook of the world beginning (M. M. J. Montessori, 1976). The children of this age often mimic their peers, and cultivate a system of sharing and taking turns not seen in the first plane (Grazzini, 1979). This fascination with peers results in the child forming strong relationships with other children, and preferring their company over that of family (Grazzini, 1979). This strong connection with peers gives rise to a willingness to abide by strong social rules within the group but a resistance to wider rules and disciplines as used in school (Grazzini, 1979).

Haines, Baker, and Kahn (2000) identify social development as part of the creation of personality in how people interact. During the second plane they question culture, society, and relationships, and start to understand their part in the world. The child must live in a social context and therefore adapts to the surrounding human culture (Haines et al., 2000). It is during this plane that the child becomes interested in things other than themselves, and consequently develops more of an affection for and understanding of humanity through knowledge of history (Haines et al., 2000). Through these aspects of knowledge acquisition, the child learns how the actions of an individual affects others (Haines et al., 2000). As such, Montessori advocated self-discipline and character development alongside educational development in this stage (Haines et al., 2000).

Emotional

Grazzini (1979) stated that the emotional aspect of the child aged six to twelve years is interconnected with the previously mentioned characteristics of the plane. The child of this plane often loses some of the ‘sweetness’ or ‘affection’ seen in the previous plane, leaning more towards a strong sense of independence and a thirst for knowledge which can sometimes manifest itself in ‘rudeness’ (Grazzini, 1979). Having said that, the child of this age is also more sensitive to the opinions or negative comments of others. During this time the child is developing their own sense of worth, with a longing for praise and acknowledgement from adults and peers alike (Grazzini, 1979). Grazzini (1979) quoted Mario Montessori in noting that once the child has gained his own self-respect and is sure of himself he becomes calmer and self-possessed, and is less likely to rebel against parental authority. This self-possession and calm are evident in Maria Montessori’s descriptions of the child of this plane as having mental and physical stability (Grazzini, 1979).

The third plane (adolescence) – twelve to eighteen years of age

Like the first plane, the third is recognised as a plane of creation (Grazzini, 2004). The child in the first plane is creating a human being, while the individual in the third is creating an ‘adult’ with the abilities to continue the species (Grazzini, 2004). It is at this point that the child enters adulthood, moving through puberty in the physical sense, and transitioning from living in a family to living in society in the psychological sense (Grazzini, 2004). The individual’s sense of justice and personal dignity is developed during this plane, although the physical changes the individual endures can result in emotional, physical and intellectual difficulties of a temporary nature (Grazzini, 2004). Montessori created a proposal for secondary education to support the individual of the third plane to be economically independent, bolster self-confidence, provide assistance during the difficult physical transformations, and encouragement for the entrance into wider society (Grazzini, 2004).

The fourth plane (maturity) – eighteen to twenty-four years of age

The final plane of Montessori’s theory is that of the university-aged individual. This individual has been ‘formed’ over the previous three planes, with a “… spiritual strength and independence for a personal mission in life” (Grazzini, 2004, p. 37). The individual of this plane should have achieved a high level of morality and conscientiousness, being willing to work whilst studying to gain economic independence and ethical stability (Grazzini, 2004).

Reference List

Grazzini, C. (1979). Characteristics of the child in the elementary school. AMI Communications, 29–40.

Grazzini, C. (2004). The Four Planes of Development. The NAMTA Journal, 29(1), 27–61.

Haines, A., Baker, K., & Kahn, D. (2000). Optimal Developmental Outcomes: The social, moral, cognitive, and emotional dimensions of a Montessori education.

Montessori, M. M. J. (1976). Education for Human Development: Understanding Montessori. New York.

Stephenson, M. E. (1991). The first plane of development. AMI Communications, 14–22.

Montessori and Imagination

Posted on 15/02/201817/11/2022 by Beth

I’ve had many discussions with people over the years regarding Montessori’s views on imagination. These views (and various interpretations or misinterpretations of her views) have been controversial for some years. Grazzini (1979) declared that to understand her position, first one must ascertain the age of the child. Consequently, the developmental needs and sensitive periods of the child at different ages will alter how imagination is used:

The young child or infant of the first stage of development must build reproductive imagination, as part of his creation of the self, through the experience of his immediate environment; whilst the older child of the second stage of development uses a creative imagination, which is based on reality, in order to psychologically conquer the world. (Grazzini, 1979, p. 33)

In the past, Montessori criticised some uses of imagination because they drew people further and further from reality in a way that caused negative effects on the person’s life. Montessori was critical of the reliance on imagination in the sense of fantasy, where the person becomes completely lost in the fantasy and disconnected from reality (Grazzini, 1979). She was concerned that society was becoming too dependent on imagination as a way of escaping from reality. That because of this, children would limit their creative imagination from all its possible uses, to the detriment of learning and knowledge (Grazzini, 1979). It could be said that her concerns are evident in our current society’s reliance on computer games and escapist fantasies. However, as long as the child is able to differentiate fantasy from reality, there are no limits to what their creative imagination can accomplish. Furthermore, this is the understanding of imagination that is linked to Montessori most frequently, as a blanket view without considering her other statements or discussions on the topic.

Below is an excerpt from Montessori’s book The Absorbent Mind:

The mind of the child between 3 and 6 years fixes not only the functions of the intelligence in relation with objects, but also those of imagination and intuition. This means that the intelligence must not have a great and vivid power at this age beyond that of merely absorbing through the senses. It has a higher, power, that of imagination, which enables the individual to ‘see’ things he cannot see. This may seem an exaggeration in relation to children of this age, but if we think about it, we realise it is not such an exaggeration, since psychology has always said that this is a period of imagination. Even the most ignorant people tell their children fairy tales, and they love them immensely, as if they were anxious to use this great power of imagination. They call a table a house, a chair a horse, etc. Everyone realises that the child likes to imagine, but he is given toys as the only help. If the child can realise a fairy and visualise fairyland, it is not difficult for him to visualise America, etc. Instead of only hearing vaguely about America, a globe with the general shape of America is a concrete help to his imagination. Imagination is endeavouring to find the truth of things, a fact which is often forgotten. If in the child’s environment the word ‘America’ or ‘World’ had never been mentioned by anyone, then it might be difficult for him to show interest in it, but since he hears the word so often, it enters his mind and he clothes it with imagination. The mind is not the passive entity one imagines, the mind of man is a flame, an all-devouring flame, it is never still, but always active.

So, with this in mind, let us consider that one of the ways that children learn is through imitation. You may have seen a quote floating around the internet from Montessori about it:

Imitation is the first instinct of the awakening mind.

As children grow and develop, role playing or dramatic play is often based around children imitating the adults they have seen around them. This helps them to process and interpret interactions and actions that they have seen. For example, in my class at the moment, everyone is fascinated with doctor and nurse role playing, as last term we were learning a lot about the human body. They are now transferring that knowledge about the body to their role play. You will see the children that are the medical professionals asking questions and checking those that are the patients, describing symptoms and cures of certain body parts, and standing on either side of a ‘counter’ to make the payments. From these questions and actions we can clearly see that the children are imitating what they have seen done at the doctor’s surgery. Therefore, these children are using their imaginations and creativity in their role playing to utilise their knowledge and extend their learning in constructive ways. If I ask them if they are actually a doctor in real life they are able to tell me that ‘no, we’re just pretending!’ Clearly, these children are not relying on their imaginations or convincing themselves that these imaginary lives are better than their real ones. They are using their imaginations as a learning tool. By visualising the symptoms and parts of the body in connection with their stethoscopes, prescription pads, and so on, my students are deepening their learning, and understandings of these roles in society.

So, what do you think? I hope this quick discussion has given you some food for thought. I would love to hear back from you your thoughts on imagination in play, and how it is utilised at home or in the classroom, whether you follow the Montessori method or not.

Montessori 101

Posted on 14/02/201817/11/2022 by Beth

I thought I’d use a different approach for this blog post and write something a bit more laid-back by giving you a quick summary of the main points of Montessori education.

Basic facts of the Montessori approach

Maria Montessori – The Montessori approach is an educational method originally designed by Maria Montessori, the first female surgeon in Italy. You can read more about Maria Montessori and the beginnings of her educational method in my earlier blog posts (Maria Montessori, Influences on Montessori 1, Influences on Montessori 2);
Child-centred & individuality – Montessori education is centred around the child’s interests and individual development, and the child’s natural developmental progression. Children are able to learn at their own pace and are recognised as individuals that learn differently to their peers;
Specialist materials & children’s development – It is based on the developmental stages all children go through, and the didactic materials are designed to meet the needs of the children as they progress through each stage. The materials also have in-built controls of error that allow the child to self-correct and learn to look critically at their own work. This encourages self-assessment and how to learn from their errors;
Coordination, concentration, & order – The design of the materials, daily routines, classroom order, and classroom preparation/ setup support the child’s developing ‘self-regulation’;
Prepared environment – The Montessori environment is designed and prepared to meet the needs of the children academically, socially, and emotionally. Children have a natural passion for learning that the prepared environment provides for and encourages by meeting the children’s needs and providing opportunities for spontaneous engagement;
Independence & freedom – It has a focus on encouraging children’s independence through the concept of freedom within limits. That is, that the children are provided with opportunities to choose for herself/ himself through a prepared environment and the didactic materials;
Community – Montessori classrooms are generally multi-age (typically spanning 3 years) which imitates a family structure. This encourages the older students to be role models and mentors to the younger children, and younger children have greater support with the combined wisdom of the directress and their peers;
Preparation for life – Montessori education aims to prepare the child for life, and for becoming a contributing member of society. They are not only prepared academically but socially and with the skills for everyday living that are part of the practical life curriculum.

The role of the teacher in the Montessori classroom

Montessori viewed the teacher as a directress or facilitator of learning. The Montessori teacher provides an environment that is prepared to meet the needs and interests of the children. They observe the children regularly to assess their progression, development, and interests, and use these observations to inform how to guide the children through their next learning steps.

The relationship between educator, classroom, and the materials

There are really two ‘teachers’ in a Montessori classroom – the directress and the prepared environment. These two teachers work together with the didactic materials to guide and teach the child through their educational journey. Each one is connected to the other, and supports each other.

Fun fact: This concept was one of the inspirations for the logo of The Montessorian. The three points of the triangle represent the three teachers in the Montessori classroom. The short bead stair was also an inspiration for The Montessorian logo.

If you want to read about Maria Montessori and her educational methods, please read my previous blog posts! Or if you want to ask something directly, email me at admin@themontessorian.com.au.

The Concrete Materials Part 2: The ‘pink tower’ and current research on brain development

Posted on 07/02/201817/11/2022 by Beth

Experiences in the early years have significant impacts on brain architecture (Rushton, 2011; The National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2008; Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority, 2008). Consequently, quality learning experiences during these years are vital for optimal brain development (Rushton, 2011; The National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2008; Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority, 2008). The National Scientific Council on the Developing Child (2008) described three influential factors for brain development: genetics, environment, and experience. A person’s genetics provide a foundational blueprint with rudimentary characteristics of nerve cells, and elementary systems for connections (The National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2008). The environment has a significant influence on the brain’s architecture, with a healthy environment from the prenatal period onwards resulting in the manifestation of its greatest potential (The National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2008). Montessori believed that environmental order assisted the child’s brain to maintain its equilibrium, which in turn resulted in beneficial interactions with the environment (Haines et al., 2000). The interactions of the person with their environment is their experience, which starts in the womb. A person’s experiences modify the aforementioned genetic plan based on their needs and the unique environment(s) they come into contact with (The National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2008).

The Early Years Learning Framework (EYLF) (Department of Education Employment and Workplace Relations (DEEWR), 2009) and the National Quality Standard (NQS) (Australian Children’s Education & Care Quality Authority (ACECQA), 2017) recognise that the experiences of each child will be diversely different based on a variety of influential factors, inclusive of family, culture, and the ever-changing learning environments children are exposed to. Consequently, curriculum should recognise the unique experiences each child has as the foundation for learning and include opportunities for learning that encompass these (ACECQA, 2017). The Montessori method can be customised to the needs of the child, merging well with the requirements and expectations of the NQS and the EYLF. The EYLF describes children’s learning as “… dynamic, complex and holistic. Physical, social, emotional, personal, spiritual, creative, cognitive and linguistic aspects of learning are all intricately interwoven and interrelated” (DEEWR, 2009, p. 9). This holistic concept of education is also evident in Montessori’s works. She viewed growth and development in a way that encompassed emotional, moral and physical aspects, as well as cognitive development (Haines et al., 2000). Consequently, the early influences of environment (including the people the child comes into contact with) and the quality of early experiences will affect all aspects of the child’s personality, especially during the periods of development when they are most sensitive (DEEWR, 2009; Haines et al., 2000).

The brain experiences stages of “… exceptional sensitivity to the effects of environment and experience …”, which are termed sensitive periods (The National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2008, p. 2). This concept can be seen in much of Montessori’s works, with her understanding of it being a natural drive that stimulates the child to perform particular actions and obtain particular experiences as each stage is reached (Haines et al., 2000; M. Montessori, 1912, 2012). Quality and relevant experiences during these sensitive periods are vital for healthy brain development because it is incredibly challenging to change neural circuits after their sensitive periods have finished (The National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2008). These sensitive periods can include language, vision, responding to social cues, and hearing, among others (Haines et al., 2000; The National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2008). Furthermore, diverse mental capabilities progress and mature at different points in a child’s developmental timeline. Consequently, each child will have different emotional and cognitive experiences in an environment, dependent on his or her age, and individual development (The National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2008). A child’s ability to observe and understand their surroundings and experiences alters over time as their neural connections are developed, moving from simpler to more complex assessments (The National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2008). Moreover, quality and motivating early experiences lay the foundations for learning later in life, with brain plasticity continuing throughout one’s life (The National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2008). Quality educational experiences in early life followed by more complex experiences in later years is essential for the brain to reach its full potential (The National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2008). The experiences of the early years provide the foundation that is built upon and extended later in life, just as the Montessori materials build upon and extend one another.

The materials in Montessori education assist the child to restructure and understand their knowledge, building on what they have learnt previously (Haines et al., 2000; M. M. J. Montessori, 1976). As the child moves through each plane of development and sensitive period, the materials provided meet the development needs that are experienced. The iconic ‘pink tower’, for example, is aesthetically pleasing to entice the young child, but actually has significant developmental purpose. It develops the child’s visual and muscular perception, which later leads to an abstract comprehension of size in three dimensions (Montessori World Education Institute (MWEI) (Australia) Inc., 2012). Furthermore, it assists in the development of the child’s fine motor coordination, and prepares the mind for mathematics (MWEI (Australia) Inc., 2012). For the child of three to six years of age, they have “… natural tendencies to explore, orient, and order [that] assist them in sequencing, classifying, and organizing …” (Haines et al., 2000, p. 11). As the child works with the pink tower, they must use their developing perceptive skills to compare and analyse each block, and orient it in relation to the rest of the blocks. They must organise them in the correct size order, judging them within the concept of the whole group, or the tower will look wrong or topple over (MWEI (Australia) Inc., 2012). With the pink tower, as with the other sensorial materials, the child must concentrate, observe, and classify (Haines et al., 2000). It utilises the child’s developing skills of this period (such as visual and observational abilities) to extend the child’s knowledge in a simple way, to be expanded upon later with increasing complexity.

Summary of Parts 1 and 2

The Montessori materials meet the developmental needs of the child at each developmental plane. They teach abstract concepts in concrete ways, utilising the young child’s sensory interests and skills. They extend the brain in each sensitive period of its development, using simple characteristics to assist the child to access their own knowledge. The experiences of the child with the manipulative materials in the Montessori environment provide quality early learning that build on the child’s existing genetic foundation. Furthermore, they form an integral part of an education system that recognises and values each child’s unique qualities, capabilities, and experiences.

Reference List

Australian Children’s Education & Care Quality Authority (ACECQA). (2017). Guide to the National Quality Standard.

Department of Education Employment and Workplace Relations. (2009). Belonging, Being & Becoming: The Early years Learning Framework for Australia (Vol. 1). Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia.

Haines, A., Baker, K., & Kahn, D. (2000). Optimal Developmental Outcomes: The social, moral, cognitive, and emotional dimensions of a Montessori education.

Montessori, M. (1912). The Montessori Method. English (Second). New York: Frederick A. Stokes Company.

Montessori, M. (2012). The Absorbent Mind. California: BN Publishing.

Montessori, M. M. J. (1976). Education for Human Development: Understanding Montessori. New York.

Montessori World Education Institute (Australia) Inc. (2012). Sensorial Education. Ellenbrook.

Rushton, S. (2011). Neuroscience, Early Childhood Education and Play: We are Doing it Right! Early Childhood Education Journal, 39(2), 89–94.

The National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. (2008). The timing and quality of early experiences combine to shape brain architecture.

Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority. (2008). Analysis of Curriculum/Learning Frameworks for the Early Years (Birth to Age 8).